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Symposiums > Past symposiums > Symposium 2006
Symposium 2006: Christianity and Cultures Abstracts Welcome Address by Luís SEQUEIRA, S.J. 呂碩基 and Stephen A. PRIVETT, S.J. Key Note Address by M. Antoni J. ÜÇERLER, S.J. 余安道 Thursday, November 30, 2006 Presentations & Panel Discussion A: The Jesuit Encounter with Buddhism in Ming China The encounter between Buddhism and the Jesuit mission will be the theme of my presentation. In this paper, I shall limit my discussion to the period between 1580 and 1595, the years when Michele Ruggieri initially visited Guangzhou and when his successor, Matteo Ricci, abandoned the persona of the Buddhist cleric to adopt that of the Confucian literatus, the crucial step in his ascent to fame and success. ► There are two parts to this presentation. One, I shall analyze the adaptations to Buddhism by the first Jesuit missionaries, adaptations which were imposed on the Jesuit missionaries by Chinese expectations. Drawing on Ricci's well-known journal as well as on Ruggieri's neglected memoirs, I shall demonstrate the divergent attitudes of the first two Jesuits in China to this Buddhist accommodation and suggest a possible tension between the two men and the two missionary strategies they represented, a tension which was resolved when the Visitor Alessandro Valignano sent Ruggieri back to Rome on 20 November, 1588, in order to plead for a papal delegate to China . In the second part, I shall describe the relationship between the Chinese elites and Buddhism in the late Ming, in order to provide a broader context for understanding the interactions between the first Jesuits and their various patrons and converts. I shall argue that the two central components of the earliest Jesuit adaptation: lay religious patronage and accommodation to Confucianism represented the dominant currents of Buddhist revival in the late Ming period, and that Chinese perceptions of the Jesuit mission, and Ricci's subsequent polemic with Buddhism, must be understood within this context. Using both published sources (Ricci's Journal, the correspondence of Ruggieri and Ricci) and Ruggieri's neglected manuscript memoirs, I have demonstrated the ways in which Ruggieri accommodated himself to Chinese expectations. As a "barbarian monk" (Fan zheng), Ruggieri's religious doctrines and practices were understood by his mandarin patrons and first converts in the context of Buddhism. I have analyzed this patronage of the early Jesuits both from the perspective of their mandarin patrons, especially Wang Pan, as well as from Ruggieri's memoirs, composed after his return to Italy. As the senior missionary in the field, Ruggieri's strategy directed the earliest Jesuit missionary effort, one shared by Ricci until Ruggieri's departure from China in 1588. After Ricci was forced to leave Zhaoqing for Shaozhou, he met the most important convert of his early career, the scholar Qu Rukui (Taisu). Qu Rukui soon came under the spell of western science and mathematics, and formally declared himself Ricci's disciple. Ricci was already acquiring a different label: he was no longer a xizheng (西僧, western Buddhist monk), fanzheng (番僧, barbarian monk) or Tianchu zheng (天竺僧, Buddhist monk from India), but a daoren (道人, master of the way), a term that the Chinese understood as those with special powers that could not be classified as Buddhist monks, Daoist priests, or Confucian scholars. With his knowledge of mathematics and astronomy, and with his western scientific instruments, Ricci acquired the persona of the qiren (奇人)or yiren (異人), (Curious or Remarkable Person) the former term he would adopt for one of his Chinese publications, the Qiren shipian (畸人十篇). It was this new persona, the qiren or daoren, that opened more doors to higher places for Ricci. Once he escaped from the Chinese expectation of Buddhist monkhood, Ricci could consider adopting the persona of a western Confucian scholar, a xishi (西士)or xiru(西儒), on the advice of Qu Rukui. Intellectually and linguistically, Ricci was making advances in the Confucian Canon far beyond where Ruggieri had reached; without these objective achievements, Ricci's self-fashioning would not have been accepted by the Chinese literati. In November 1594, Ricci visited Valignano in Macao to seek permission for the change of Jesuit identity in the China Mission, a decision that he had obviously come to for some time. With the blessing of the Visitor, Ricci and his companion Cattaneo donned the long robes and the tall four-cornered hats of the Confucian scholars; they also let their hair grow and by the end of August 1595, they had beards up to their belts. On 10 June, 1625, Li Zhizao(李之藻), Dr. Leo in the Jesuit sources, published a rubbing of a Tang dynasty Nestorian stele that was recently discovered in Xian. Li also wrote a postscript, Du Jingjiao bei shuhou (讀景教碑書後), in which he comments on the Nestorians using the name of zeng, Buddhist monk: "The reason for this being that in their country there was no distinction between the clergy and the laity. Their laity did not grow their long; and the men wore their hair close cropped. Thus the Chinese insisted they were Buddhist monks, and they could not explain the difference. Similarly, when Ricci first entered Guangdong province, he also wandered different paths. Later, he met Qu Taisu and distinguished that he was not a Buddhist monk, after which he grew his hair and called himself ru, a Confucian scholar." These succinct lines by Li Zhizao captured the essence of the early Jesuit accommodation to Buddhism, a strategy imposed upon them by Chinese expectations, and especially by the matrix of Mandarin-Gentry patronage of Buddhism of the Late Ming. The Chinese catechism composed by Ruggieri, the Tianzhu shilu, was deeply imfluenced by this accommodation to Buddhism, as was the missionary strategy of Ruggieri. This paper has tried to demonstrate the different aspects of this missionary accommodation, from both Jesuit and Chinese perspectives. It argues for the emergence of a tension between Ruggieri and Ricci, the latter arguing for an alternative missionary strategy of using science and mathematics as aid for doctrinal persuasion. My paper has also documented the departure of Ruggieri from the China Mission, and the subsequent rupture between Buddhist accommodation and Jesuit missionary strategy under the direction of Ricci, one that turned to Confucian learning and western science as the templates for enculturation and religious persuasion. Close KISHINO Hisashi 岸野久 KISHINO Hisashi 「大日」からデウスへ－初期キリシタン宣教師の仏教発見と理解 1549年8月来日したフランシスコ・ザビエルがキリスト教の神デウスDeusに「大日」Dainichi（真言宗の教主大日如来の略)を宛て、日本滞在期間の大半｢大日）を説いていたこと、｢大日）がデ ウスでないと分かってからデウスに替えたこと、 ► は周知の事実である。従来の研 究では、デウスを「大日」に宛てたこと（デウス=「大日」）はザビエルの大失敗とされ、その原因として彼に日本情報を提供した日本人アンジローの日本の宗教への無知にあるとされ、その後これ以上の議論はなされず今日に至っている。しかしデウス=「大日」という問題はその可否、責任云々もさることながら、キリスト教と仏教という世界の２大宗教の接触、そして異文化理解という点でも興味ある今日的なテーマである。 ザビエルは1547年マラッカで日本人アンジローと出会ったことにより、日本に関心をもち、やがて日本布教を決意した。その準備の段階で最も頭を悩ましたのは、キリスト教の神デウスを日本で如何に表現するかであったろう。ザビエルはアンジローから日本の宗教情報を提供され、これを慎重に検討した上で、太陽の如く唯一にして絶対的性格をもつ「大日」にデウスとの共通性を見出し、デウスに「大日」を宛てた。しかしザビエルはインド布教においてキリスト教教理を翻訳する際、デウスをはじめ主要な教理用語を現地のタミル語に翻訳せず、ポルトガル語を用いている。これはキリスト教と現地の宗教であるヒンズー教との混同を避けようとしたものである。従って、「大日」の採用は異例なことであるといえる。 なぜザビエルはデウスに「大日」を宛て「大日」を使用したのであろうか。このことは彼の日本・中国を含めた「東アジア布教構想」とも称すべき将来計画と関連させて考える必要がある。彼は来日前、すでに中国行きの意図を持ち、日本滞在を2年余りと考え、具体的な活動目標として①日本の宗教事情、②過去の日本へのキリスト教布教の有無、③キリスト教布教の可能性と将来性などの調査を行い、その上で後進たちに今後の方針を示すことを日本布教のパイオニアとして最大の課題としていた。この課題に、2年余りで一応の結論を出すには、原語のデウスでは日本人とのコミュニケーションに時間がかかり、日本到着早々から活動できない恐れがある。そのために多少の混乱や危険は覚悟しながらも、日本人に馴染みのある「大日」を用い、「大日」をキーワードとして日本の宗教事情を解明しようとしたものと思われる。 ザビエルは1549年8月より1551年8月までの2年間「大日」を説いた。その結果、キリスト教は「天竺宗」として仏教の一派と見なされ、約200名の「大日」信者が生まれた。このような布教上のマイナスはあったが、ザビエルら宣教師やキリスト教は日本社会で大した抵抗を受けることなく、比較的スムーズに受け入れられ、鹿児島では領主島津貴久、山口では領主大内義隆と謁見し、彼らとの関係で仏教界の幹部とも接触できた。 山口では、真言宗僧侶との対話のさい、デウスと「大日」との違いに気づき、さらに「大日」が女性の恥部を表わす隠語であることを知って、「大日」の使用を直ちにやめ、原語デウスに替えた（以後、日本では主要な教理用語には原語が用いられることになる)。これを機に宣教師と仏教僧侶との本格的な宗教論争が開始され、ザビエルらに仏教の世界が開けてきたのである。 その後「大日」は布教の場からは消えたが、仏教研究の場において1560年代初めスコラ哲学のマテリア・プリマmateria prima〔第一質料〕と規定とされ、仏教分析のキーワードとして宣教師の仏教理解に大きく寄与したのである。 Close From "Dainichi" to Deus – The Early Christian Missionaries' Discovery and Understanding of Buddhism It is common knowledge that Francis Xavier, who visited Japan in August 1549, first addressed the Christian God Deus as "Dainichi" (abbreviation of the founder of the Shingon sect of Buddhism, Dainichi Nyorai), and during the majority of his stay in Japan preached of "Dainichi." ► Then after having realized that "Dainichi" was not Deus (God), replaced his teaching of God with Deus (phonetically pronounced "Deusu"). In existing research, the addressing of God as "Dainichi" (Deus = "Dainichi") is regarded as Xavier's greatest mistake, and it is held that the ignorance of Japanese religion by the Japanese Anjiro who provided Xavier with information on Japan was the cause of this, after which there has been no further argument beyond these points until this day. However, the problem of Deus = "Dainichi," is an interesting contemporary theme, as one may well speak of its pros and cons, responsibility, and so on and so forth, but the contact between Christianity and Buddhism, two of the world's great religions, and the understanding of foreign cultures are also interesting points worth considering. By having met with the Japanese Anjiro in Malacca in 1547, Xavier got interested in Japan and before long decided on Japan's propagation. How to portray the Christian God Deus in Japan would likely have had Xavier racking his brains the most during the stage of preparation. After carefully examining the information on Japanese religion that was offered from Anjiro, Xavier found out common characteristics between God and "Dainichi," who, like the sun, was unique and had an absolute nature, and as such, Xavier decided to address Deus as "Dainichi." However, when Xavier was translating Christian doctrine for propagation in India, he used Portuguese without translating into the local Tamil dialect major doctrinal terminology beginning with Deus. This tended to avoid confusion between Christianity and the local religion of Hinduism. Therefore, it can be said that the adoption of "Dainichi" was an exceptional thing. Why was it that Xavier addressed God as "Dainichi" and used "Dainichi"? It is necessary to consider how this was caused to be connected with Xavier's future plans, which should be referred to as his "design for the propagation of East Asia," which included Japan and China. Before coming to Japan, Xavier already had the intention of going to China, considered staying in Japan for a little over two years, and, as his concrete goals of operation, was to go and investigate (1) Japan's religious situation, (2) whether or not the propagation of Christianity happened in Japan in the past, (3) and the possibility and future prospects of the propagation of Christianity in Japan. Moreover, Xavier made showing his juniors the objective from here on out, as pioneers in the propagation of Japan, was a task of the greatest magnitude. In order to draw a tentative conclusion on this subject at more than two years, as far as using Deus from the original language, communicating with the Japanese takes time, and since the beginning of the missionaries' arrival in Japan, there was a danger of not being able to operate. For that reason, it is thought that although there was some degree of confusion and danger done in preparation, making use of "Dainichi" as a familiar concept to the Japanese, with "Dainichi" as a keyword, attempted to elucidate Japan's religious situation. Xavier preached of "Dainichi" for a period of two years from August 1549 until August 1551. As a result, Christianity was regarded as a school of Buddhism through an "Indian sect" and about 200 believers of "Dainichi" were born. Although this was a minus from the standpoint of this kind of propagation, Xavier, the missionaries, and Christianity, without receiving great resistance in Japanese society, were accepted relatively smoothly, and received an audience in Kagoshima with the feudal lord Takahisa Shimazu, and in Yamaguchi with the feudal lord Yoshitaka Ōuchi; and by their relationship with them, were able to make contact with leaders in the Buddhist world. In Yamaguchi, at one point when there was a dialogue with a priest of the Shingon sect of Buddhism, the missionaries noticed a difference between Deus and "Dainichi," and furthermore discovered that "Dainichi" had a special language for expressing female genitalia, and thus immediately stopped the use of "Dainichi," switching to "Deus" in its original language (henceforth in Japan original language became used for major doctrinal terminology). Taking advantage of this opportunity, full-blown religious debates between missionaries and Buddhist monks were commenced, and Xavier and his fellows began to open the door on the Buddhist world. After that, although Dainichi disappeared from the field of propagation, in the field of Buddhist studies at the beginning of the 1560s, scholastic materia prima (matter) was laid down, and the missionaries' understanding of Buddhism contributed greatly as a major key in the analysis of Buddhism. Close Presentations & Panel Discussion B: 李奭學 LI Sher-shiueh 夢的翻譯與翻譯的夢：試論漢譯第一首「英詩」《聖夢歌》 崇禎十年（1637年），艾儒略在福建彰泉一帶中譯《聖夢歌》，是年並由晉江天主堂梓行之。此書由閩人張賡（c. 1570-c. 1647）為之撰序，文中嘗引艾儒略之言曰：《聖夢歌》之始也，乃「西土詩歌」，但艾氏願以「中邦之韻」出之。 ► 所以全詩二百七十六行係自覺性的「文學翻譯」，毋庸置疑。據費賴之《在華耶穌會士列傳》考，艾儒略來華前嘗為教師，在歐洲所授課程之一即「文學」（les belles-lettres）。《聖夢歌》最早的形式，應為艾儒略和張賡合作後的結果。艾氏蒞閩前，嘗在入陝後又至晉中敷教，絳州門人段袬在晉江版問世後以北人緣慳一面為由，曾於崇禎十二年偕其二子冕、昱又於古絳天主堂重印之。 段氏的〈重刻《聖夢歌》〉一文故而亦曰：「是歌久傳西土，余師艾先生與清源張子譯而梓之。」不過在鐘鳴旦（Nicholas Standaert）與杜鼎克（Adrian Dudink）編成《羅馬耶穌會檔案館藏明清天主教文獻》之前，《聖夢歌》世不易見，要待陳綸緒著《羅馬耶穌會檔案館藏漢和圖書文獻目錄提要》出，此書之為「譯詩」，才廣為學界所知，而星移斗換，陳氏據以申論的第三版已值康熙三十七年了。 依其所見，艾儒略所謂「中邦之韻」殆指「七古」，而全書體式則「近似彈詞」，似可伴以絲竹而歌。除此之外，《聖夢歌》還創下中國文學與翻譯史上另一記錄，亦即從最嚴格的「詩」的定義衡之，《聖夢歌》亦可稱漢譯第一首歐洲或----嚴格說來是----「英國」的「長篇敘事詩」，甚至----更嚴格說來----應該稱之為形式較為簡約的某種「戲劇詩」，不但打破了錢鍾書和沈弘、郭暉等人早期的成見， 也把所謂朗法羅 (Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 1819-1892) 的〈人生頌〉（"A Psalm of Life"）或米爾頓（John Milton, 1608-1674）的〈論失明〉（"On His Blindness"）係首先中譯的「英詩」或「西洋詩」之見給撤底推翻了。艾儒略譯成之際，距清軍入關尚有十年之久，所以比起〈人生頌〉或〈論失明〉，英詩中譯的時間得往上再推二百年左右。有趣的是：其為功也，居然不是英人，而是出身南歐的艾儒略。 職是之故，本文首先會試予解答《聖夢歌》的作者與原文的問題，而這是一首什麼詩，其美學價值何在，屬性與原文的形成背景又為何，本文也會一併予以除理。這些問題解答完畢之後，本文另會試論《聖夢歌》----及其原文----在華與在歐洲的接受問題與接受史，並借以總結全文。 Close Translating Dreams: Giulio Aleni's "Shengmengge" in the Context of Sino-Western Literary Exchanges In four sections, this paper discusses four related aspects of the Shengmengge 聖夢歌, a debate poem translated into Chinese by Giulio Aleni in cooperation with Zhang Gen 張賡 in Fujian in 1637. The first section focuses on the formation of the antecedents of the Shengmengge ► and how they were later transformed into the Royal Debate in Britain, from which were taken the Latin original of the Shengmengge, generally known as the Visio Sancti Bernardi, written by a British priest at the turn of the thirteenth century, and its counterpart in Medieval English. In addition to this investigation into the genealogy of the Shengmengge, this section also examines the literary form of the translated song in light of Robert Chan's observation that its rhyme pattern, qigu 七古, resembles tanci 彈詞. The second section deals with the problem of translation in its explication of the translated song. Aleni mentions in one preface that the Chinese rendition of Shengmengge is "roughly done" or cushu 粗述. The present paper explores the translated text against the Visio Sancti Bernardi and finds that Aleni does put it "roughly" primarily due to the limitations of Chinese prosody. But where he and Zhang can exercise their poetic talent, they never miss a line of the original. The Visio Sancti Bernardi is generally supposed to be the most popular debate poem between the body and soul in Medieval Europe, and the Shengmengge can be taken as the first translated poem from England. Together with its prefaces and epilogues, this translated song was printed in a single volume since 1637. Because of this unusual format, I suggest that Shengmengge occupies an important position in the history of Chinese print culture; no single poem in Chinese history had previously been published as its own book. The third section considers the reception of the Shengmengge in China and focuses on Chinese Christians' response to the translated poem as expressed in their prefaces and epilogues. The Christians' initial response to this poem are highly influenced by traditional Chinese attitudes toward dreaming (e.g. Zhuangzi 莊子and Liezi列子). Thus the Chinese topos of "life as a dream" is echoed in those readings of the Shengmengge. This notwithstanding, as Christian readers interpret more closely the translated song, their views change to more closely approximate Western understandings of the Visio Sancti Bernardi: The poem was composed primarily to reflect the Christian fear of the last judgment. The final section returns to the British development of the poetic debate between body and soul. In addition to simply comparing Chinese and Western dream literature, this paper relocates the Visio Sancti Bernardi in the context of English metaphysical poetry in the seventeenth century, since no debate poems other than the Shengmengge can be found in traditional China. A simple look at such descendents of the Visio Sancti Bernardi as Andrew Marvell's "To His Coy Mistress" shows that the traditional tone of ubi sunt in the verse debate has been altered into a carpe diem, a Horacian view of life that undercuts Aleni's intentions for his translation of the Visio Sancti Bernardi into the Shengmengge. Close William FARGE, S.J. William FARGE, S.J. The Japanese Translations of the Jesuit Mission Press The story of the Jesuit mission press of Japan began in India in 1575 when the first Provincial Congregation of the Society of Jesus (19-28 December, in Chorão, Goa) gave official sanction for the production of "religious literature in the native languages."1 ► Everard Mercurian, general superior of the Jesuits, expressed his support for the creation of a Japanese devotional literature in his responses to the congregation's proposals. He cautioned, however, that care was to be exercised and any books published would have to be sent to Rome for examination. Alessandro Valignano (1539-1606), as official visitor representing the superior general of the Society throughout the sphere of Portuguese influence in Asia from 1574 to 1606, had the authority to determine mission policy concerning the creation of native Catholic literature. He recommended that the Jesuit missionaries should place greater emphasis on the study of the Japanese language and adapt themselves to Japanese customs and etiquette.2 Francisco Cabral (1529-1609), the mission superior in Japan from 1570 to 1581, opposed this policy fearing it would have a detrimental effect on Jesuit life. As a result, the Jesuits of the mission press struggled to determine just how far they could or should go in altering the language of Catholic spirituality and doctrine in order to accommodate Christian beliefs to the Japanese. The translation of European books into religious treatises suitable for the Japanese began in earnest in 1590, as soon as Valignano arrived in Japan with the printing press. Three works stand out as being of particularly high literary quality. There were two translations of the spiritual work attributed to Thomas à Kempis (1380-1471), De Imitatione Christi (On the imitation of Christ, 1441). A virtually complete translation was published in roman letters at Amakusa in 1596 under the title Contemptvs mundi jenbu (Contempt of the world, complete). Fourteen years later, in 1610, an abridged translation, Kontemutsusu munji, was printed in Japanese syllabary characters (hiragana) in Kyoto by the Catholic layman Antonio Harada. A translation of Luis de Granada's (1504-1588) manual of devotion, Guía de Pecadores (The sinner's guide, 1567) was prepared for publication at Nagasaki in 1599-1600 and printed under the Japanese transliterated title Giya do pekadoru. These three works demonstrated a mastery of Japanese literary style and translation technique as well as the Jesuit mission's desire to adapt Catholic spirituality to Japanese culture. A close reading of these translations reveals that there was a struggle between Jesuits who wanted to put limits on literary adaptation and those who favored Valignano's more open policy of inculturation. Though the translators did use some Buddhist terminology, much of the religious vocabulary in the texts consisted of transliterated Spanish or Portuguese words. In spite of the official resolve to build up a Japanese Catholic Church and to adapt to the indigenous culture, the translations done by the Jesuits give evidence that the search for suitable religious language was surrounded by controversy. A major obstacle to communicating the Christian message in Japan through literary translation was the particular type of culturally-biased language in which De Imitatione Christi and Guía de Pecadores had originally been written. It was a religious idiom that, for the most part, was alien to Japan. The translators' challenge was much more complicated than simply finding language equivalents for Latin and Spanish words and then rewriting them in intelligible Japanese. The Jesuits had to first select those parts of the original works that would resonate with the native culture and then highlight or develop them by making culturally appropriate changes or additions. The translators noted, for example, that the Latin phrase "contemptus mundi" did not simply mean "contempt for the world." The term refered rather to the decrepitude of the world3 or, in the words of Lotario di Segni (1198-1216) who later became Pope Innocent III, "the misery of the human condition." The Japanese translators adapted this concept to that of ukiyo (the transitory world), a sentiment that has been significant throughout the history of Japanese literature and culture. From the Heian period (794-1185), this word had been used to describe the world as a place of sorrow and grief. It expressed a Buddhist view of reality in which human existence is under the control of complex chains of causation. Throughout Muromachi times (1336-1573) the word ukiyo continued to allude to an unsettled feeling of instability in life. The Jesuit mission press identified contemptus mundi with the Japanese native understanding of ukiyo. This is only one example of the many linguistic adaptations that allowed the press to produce a literature of high quality that was based on a solid understanding of Japanese cultural sensibilities. The Jesuit mission press was intent not only on cultural adaptation but also on preserving orthodoxy and communicating the authentic teachings of the Church. Translators had to find a way to bring the teachings of Christ to a people who had no European cultural or philosophical foundation for understanding Catholicism, and they had to do it in a language that had no specifically Christian religious vocabulary. The theological assumptions of sixteenth-century European Catholicism, its attitudes concerning religious language and dogmatic meaning, and the missionary necessity of presenting an orthodox Christian message to a non-European culture were all problems that ultimately were successfully tackled by the Jesuits of the Japanese mission press. Contemptvs mundi jenbu, Kontemutsusu munji, and Giya do pekadoru, have been called the best pieces of any religious literature in Japan, either Christian or non-Christian.4 This paper will examine thoroughly, through examples, the methods of translation and editing used by the mission press in its attempt to produce a native Christian literature as directed by the Jesuit Provincial Congregation of 1575. From this examination a more accurate picture of exactly what cultural adaptation meant for the Jesuit missionaries at the turn of the seventeenth century will emerge. 1 Josef Franz Schütte,SJ, Valignano's Mission Principles For Japan, Part I, trans. John J. Coyne (St. Louis: The Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1980), p. 250. 2 Ibid., p. 340 3 Jean Delumeau, Sin and Fear: The Emergence of a Western Guilt Culture, 13th-18th Centuries, trans. Eric Nicholson (New York: St Martin's Press, 1990), p. 10. 4 Anesaki Masaharu, ed., Kirishitan shükyô bungaku (Tokyo: Kokusho Kankôkai, 1976), pp. 9-10. Close Presentations & Panel Discussion C: 片岡瑠美子 KATAOKA Rumiko キリシタン時代の秘跡授受における適応の考察 16世紀末から17世紀初め頃に描かれたと推定される「南蛮屏風」には、純和風建築の聖堂で祈る人々、別室で行なわれている告解の秘跡の場面、また別棟の部屋で教理問答中の師弟にお茶が運ばれる様子などが描かれている。「告解」の描写は、「教会において、 ► 窓格子をつけた告解室を設けること」という服務規程が遵守されていたことを示しており、「跪いて、うつむき、頭を下げて聴罪司祭の方へ向ける、そして、「・・・武器を外して預ける・・・」と大小の刀を決して身から離さない武士のたしなみを意識した『サカラメンタ提要』の記述通りである。告解の秘跡に関して加えるならば、すでにフランシスコ・ザビエルが「日本人は告解をきわめて好む」と報告し、イエズス会巡察師ヴァリニャーノも同じことを述べている。そして多数の報告書は、司祭が教会を訪れたとき、「司祭は朝から夜まで告解を聴いた」ことを証言している。だからこそ、日本司教セルケイラは、迫害によって宣教師がいなくなる状況を想定し、『こんちりさんのりやく』を出版して、秘跡が受けられない状況においても、アニマの助かりを得る方法として「こんちりさんを起こす方法と完全な痛悔の祈り」を教えていた。 そのほかの記録では、これらの聖堂の中では日本人の作法を取り入れ、ミサの間もヨーロッパ風に跪いたり立ったりせず、正座したまま与っていたという。 著名なキリシタン大名ダリオ高山飛騨守図書とその息子ジュスト右近の洗礼は1563年か1565年であったが、ダリオ高山は4000クルサード以上を要して、領内に和風の教会堂を建立し、日本の仏寺で珍重される庭園を設けた。それは、「建てられる建築物は日本風に順応するよう努力すること、日本人自身が資力に応じて教会の建築に寄与するように」というヴァリニャーノの勧告を思い起こさせる。 また、高槻では、主日と祝日にミサを立てる司祭がいない場合、教会に集まった会衆に対して、城主であるダリオ高山飛騨守が説教あるいは信心書の朗読する習慣ができていた。 日本の各地の教会では、大きな祝日には、典礼に合わせた聖書の中の物語を日本語の韻文に訳し、脚色されて演じられた。それは、ラテン語と規定されていたミサ典礼の参加へのよりよい準備となったはずである。そのほか、祝祭日の典礼劇に狂言、能を導入しているので、当然、日本の楽器によって日本的音楽が奏されたに違いない。 洗礼や婚姻の秘跡においても日本人の慣習を重んじた積極的な適応がとられた。 また、ダリオ高山とジュスト右近は、貧しい兵士や身寄りのない人が死ぬと、当時の日本人の習慣に反して、大名親子自らが棺を肩に担いで信仰を表わしたことも、キリシタン側の実践としてみるべき大事なことであろう。 典礼の適応は、宣教師の長い経験と魂の救いを第一とする宣教の目的から生まれた。日本における適応の基本姿勢と種々の規定の内容と実践、それによってもたらされた布教の効果を考察したい。 Close The Adaptation of the Christian Liturgy Sacrament for the First Mission in Japan The "Folding Screen Painting of the Southern Barbarians" that was estimated to have been drawn sometime around the end of the 16th century to the beginning of the 17th century, depicts situations such as people praying in a sanctuary of authentic Japanese-style construction, ► a setting for the sacrament of confession that is being performed in another room, and tea being carried to a teacher and student in the middle of a doctrinal catechism in the room of a separate building. The depiction of the "confession", shows that the service regulations were being observed, that "in a church, the setting up of a confessional has a window lattice attached," "to kneel, and with downcast eyes, bow your head and turn in the direction of the priest hearing confession," then, in accordance to the description of the Sakaramenta Teiyō [Manuale ad Sacramenta Ecclesiae ministranda] which was conscious of the preference of the samurai to never separate their two swords from their bodies to "…remove and check your weapons." If one is to include what was thought concerning the sacrament of confession, Francis Xavier already reports that "Japanese very much like confession," with the Jesuit Visitor Valignano also expressing the same thing. Additionally, a great number of reports testify that, when a priest visits a church, "the priest listens to confessions from morning until night." For this very reason, the Japanese bishop Cerqueira, supposing a situation in which, due to the persecutions, the missionaries were to be no more, published Konchiri no Riyaku [The Blessing of Contrition]; and also for a situation in which the sacraments were unable to be received, taught "The Way that Leads to Contrition and the Prayer for Perfect Contrition" as a means to obtain salvation of the soul. In other records it is said that in these churches Japanese etiquette was adopted, such that also during mass, there was no kneeling or standing in the European-style, rather they participated by remaining in seiza (Japanese style of sitting back in a kneeling position). The baptism of prominent Christian daimyo Dario Takayama Hida-no-kami Zusho and his son Justo Ukon occurred in 1563 or 1565; and Dario Takayama, at a cost of more than 4000 cruzados, erected within his territory a Japanese-style church, and created a garden that is highly prized at a Japanese Buddhist temple. That example recalls the advice of Valignano that, "in order for the Japanese themselves to contribute to the construction of a church according to their means, a building that is to be built should strive to appear to adapt to the Japanese style." Moreover, in Takatsuki, in the event that a priest to preside over the mass was not present on the Sabbath or a holiday, Dario Takayama Hida-no-kami, who was the lord of the castle, was able to proceed with the custom of reciting a sermon or devotional to the congregation gathered at the church. In the churches throughout Japan, on big holidays, a story in the Bible suited to the Catholic liturgy was translated into Japanese verse, dramatized and performed. That was expected to become a better arrangement for participation in the liturgy of the mass which normally was set to be in Latin. In addition, since kyōgen and a Noh plays were introduced into the special holiday liturgy, it was natural that the Japanese music must have been played using Japanese instruments. Also in the sacrament of baptism and marriage, a pro-active orientation that honored Japanese customs was taken. Moreover, when a poor soldier or someone without any relatives died, contrary to the Japanese custom of the time, Dario Takayama and Justo Ukon, as daimyo father and son, also displayed their faith by both personally shouldering the casket, which seems to be an important thing that should be seen as a practice of their Christian side. The adaptation of the liturgy was born from the missionary purpose that supposes the missionaries' long experience and spiritual salvation to be the number one priority. I want to consider the effects of propagation that were produced as a result of the fundamental position towards adaptation in Japan, the contents of various regulations, and the practice of faith. Close ASAMI Masakazu 淺見雅一 ASAMI Masakazu 「日本・中国巡察師アントニオ・ルビノが典礼問題に与えた解決策について」 日本・中国巡察師アントニオ・ルビノとディエゴ・モラーレスは、一六四一年にマニラにおいて中国の典礼問題についての論文を執筆している。彼らは、殉教を覚悟の上で日本に渡航する前に典礼問題の解決策を提示しようとしたものと考えられる。この論文は、 ► マニラにおいてモラーレスがルビノの見解を基にしてポルトガル語で纏めたものであると推測される。この論文には、中国人の信仰が概括的に説明されており、孔子については、中国第一の倫理学者であり、中国人が彼を神や預言者であると見做しているのではないとされている。イエズス会士達は、孔子廟が講堂乃至邸宅であると解釈しており、そこは孔子を称える場所ではあるが、孔子が神格化されているわけではないと見做している。それ故、孔子に学者としての敬意を払うことは問題にならない。孔子廟において、本来は神以外のものには許されない動物の犠牲を捧げるなどの行為を実践することについては、犠牲を捧げることが教会の著述家達によってさえ誤解されることがあるとして、これが問題にならないとした。中国人の祖先崇拝に対しても、同様の論理が適用されている。 典礼問題については、中国の官吏の職務としてキリスト教徒の官吏が城隍廟に参拝せざるを得ない状況に対処することが必要となる。その一例として、官吏の役職に就任する際に参拝することが要求されている。旱魃の際に雨乞いをすることも、現役か退役かを問わず、官吏としての義務であると見做されていた。杭州における楊廷均は、役職を既に退いていたとはいえ、雨乞いのために城隍廟に参拝することが必要となった。その際、彼から相談を受けた中国準管区長フランシスコ・フルタードは、城隍廟に行かずに自宅に留まることを上官に申請するよう助言する一方で、もし、それができないのであれば、参拝後に告解を行ない、聖体拝領を受けるよう勧めている。その後、こうした状況に対して、城隍廟内に独自の礼拝堂を建立したり、キリスト教の神を称える額を掲げたりして、城隍廟に参拝はするが偶像崇拝に相当する行為を避ける方法が採られるようになった。 この論文には、日本における良心問題の議論が重要な論拠として参照されている。一五七〇年にフランシスコ・ロドリゲスがゴアにおいて作成した日本における良心問題の事例集からの引用が見られる。ロドリゲスの議論がその後の日本において長期間に亘って効力を維持していたことが判る。東インド巡察師アレッサンドロ・ヴァリニャーノが一五九二年に日本における良心問題をヨーロッパに諮問する際、ロドリゲスの事例集を参照していたことも確認できる。日本準管区長ペドロ・ゴメスも、日本における偶像崇拝についてロドリゲスの議論を参照していることが確認できる。ルビノの論文には、ヴァリニャーノの諮問に対するガブリエル・バスケスの回答が度々引用されているので、日本における偶像崇拝の事例が中国における典礼問題に適用可能であると考えられていたことが判る。 この論文によれば、バスケスの回答は、アソール、バスケス・デ・パディーリャ、アンヘリスの承認を受けたうえに、一六〇二年四月四日、アルカラにおいて開催された総合異端審問所の会議において承認されたことになっている。彼の回答は、一五九五年の作成直後に既に正式に承認されていたが、一六〇二年には教皇クレメンス八世の命令によってアルカラ大学が異端審問を受けており、バスケスも、この時に教皇批判の嫌疑を受けて拘束されている。その後、彼の嫌疑が晴れて釈放されたので、彼の見解が是認できると見做されたのであろう。この論文が執筆された時点において、バスケスの回答は、日本及び中国において効力を維持していたのである。従って、良心問題としての典礼問題は、ルビノが日本における偶像崇拝の問題を適用することで解決を図っていたことになる。 Close Regarding the Solution That Antonio Rubino, Visitor to Japan and China, Gave on the Rites Controversy Antonio Rubino, the Visitor to Japan and China, and Diego Morales, in 1641, were writing a paper in Manila about the Chinese rites controversy. It is thought that they tried to present a solution to the rites controversy before voyaging to Japan, after having prepared themselves for martyrdom. ► It is believed that this paper was something that, while in Manila, Morales put together in Portuguese based upon Rubino's point of view. In this paper Chinese beliefs have been explained in a generalized manner; and concerning Confucius, though described as China's greatest philosopher, it is not supposed that the Chinese regard him as a god or a prophet. The Jesuits interpret Confucius' Mausoleum to be anything from an auditorium to a residence, and though it is a place that praises Confucius, it is considered that Confucius is not necessarily deified. In this way, paying respect to Confucius as a scholar does not become a problem. In Confucius' Mausoleum, essentially, with regard to practicing such acts as offering up impermissible animal sacrifices to anything other than God, as the offering of sacrifices is something that can be misunderstood even by church writers, it was assumed that this would not become a problem. The same logic was also applied toward Chinese ancestor worship. Regarding the rites controversy, it became necessary to deal with the situation in which Christian officials are forced to worship at Chenghuang Temple in the capacity of Chinese government officials. As an example, in the event of being inaugurated to an official government position, one was required to worship at the temple. Also praying for rain when there was a draught, regardless of whether one was active duty or retired, was considered one's duty as a government official. Although Yang Yanjun of Hangzhou, had already left his official post, it was still required that he worship at Chenghuang Temple to pray for rain. On these occasions, the vice provincial of China, Francisco Furtado, who received counsel from him, advised applying to one's superior officer to remain at home without going to Chenghuang Temple, but if that was not possible, he encouraged making a confession after worship and receiving Holy Communion. Afterwards, in regard to situations like this, things like building an independent chapel within Chenghuang Temple, and putting up a framed picture praising the Christian God, came to be adopted as ways to avoid the act of corresponding doing worship at Chenghuang Temple with idol worship. The dispute/controversy over the question of conscience in Japan is referred to as an important argument in this paper. Excerpts can be seen from the collection of examples on the conscience issue in Japan that was drawn up in Goa by Francisco Rodrigues in 1570. It turns out that Rodrigues' argument maintained its efficacy in Japan after that, extending over a prolonged period of time. It can also be confirmed that in 1592, Alessandro Valignano, the Visitor to the East Indies, when conferring with Europe on the conscience problem in Japan, consulted Rodrigues' case history on the matter. It can be confirmed that Pedro Gomez, the vice provincial of Japan, also was consulting Rodrigues' argument concerning idol worship in Japan. Because Gabriel Vasquez's response to Valignano's inquiry is often cited in Rubino's paper, it recognizes that an example of idol worship in Japan can be considered to be applicable to the rites controversy in China. According to this paper, after Vasquez's response received the recognition of Athol, Vasquez de Padilla, and Angelis, it came to be recognized in a coordinated inquisition meeting held in Alcalá on April 4, 1602. In 1602, by order of Pope Clement VIII, Alcalá University underwent an inquisition and Vasquez, too, at this time, received suspicion from papal criticism, and his response, although already officially recognized immediately following its writing in 1595, was restricted. After that, because Vasquez' name was cleared and he was acquitted, his opinion will probably be considered able to be approved. At the point in time when this paper was written, Vasquez' response had been maintaining its efficacy in Japan as well as China. Consequently, it turns out that the Chinese rites controversy as a conscience problem has devised a resolution through Rubino's application of the problem of idol worship in Japan. Close Friday, December 1, 2006 Presentations & Panel Discussion D: 川村信三 KAWAMURA Shinzō, S.J. 近世初期日本における共同体、キリスト教世界、統一政権 十六世紀日本は、長く支配の座に君臨した天皇家をふくむ権門勢家の権威が失墜し、中央政権としての室町幕府の権力と権威が実質を失った時期である。一方、各地の大名・土豪および上層農民がエネルギーを蓄積しつつ新たに覇を争う乱世となった。 ► 宗教史的には、権門寺社勢力にとって異端的ともいえる新興宗派が広域のネットワークを形成した時期である。天下統一をもくろむ者にとって、様々な共同体の「ヨコの連帯」の切り崩しが最重要課題となった。ここに、新規参入したキリスト教の共同体（キリシタン）はどのようなポジションを持ったのか。キーワードとして「寺内」(temple precincts)を中心に考察する。 天正十五年（1587年）六月、全国統一を間近に控えた豊臣秀吉によって、突如、伴天連追放令（六月十八日付『覚書』）が発令され、四〇年にわたって発展をとげたキリスト教界は窮地に追い込まれた。法令の中で秀吉は、キリスト教と一向宗（浄土真宗本願寺）との類似を「寺内」というキーワードによって指摘し、一向宗（本願寺）とキリシタン双方を危険視し、全国統一の基本方針を宣言したのである。キリシタンと本願寺（浄土真宗）の類似を指摘した最初の為政者、秀吉が見通したものとは何であったか。 蓮如（1415-1499）による本願寺拡大が始まった十五世紀後半、真宗は、各地に道場を建て、その主催者として半僧半俗の道場主（毛坊主）を置き、定期的な集会である「講」をもうけ、談義本による問答形式の教理解説によって宗教基盤を固めていた。これが独立自治区、すなわち「寺内」の基本であり、やがて、「百姓の持ちたる国のように」領主を追放し、自主独立領域をもった。天下統一を目指す領主にとって、領域内の独立領域の存在は許し難い悪となった。一方、キリスト教の共同体の基本には、ヨーロッパに起源をもち、日本に移入された「コンフラテルニタス」の組織づくりの核が認められる。これは十三世紀イタリアに起源をもつ、聖職者を介入させない、信徒の自主独立運営の信心サークルの呼称であり、十四世紀の黒死病流行以後、人口激減による教区制度崩壊に瀕する教会共同体を、超教区的なヨコの連帯によって維持させた信徒集団である。通常５０名前後の会員の上に互選リーダーを置き、自主作成の掟を持っていた。日本に移入されたコンフラテルニタスの概念はやがて、キリシタンの「コンフラリヤ」となり、民間宗教共同体の核となった。各地で信徒集団が形成され、それぞれは「祭壇付民家」を建て、定期的な集会をもうけ、信徒指導者らが宣教師の巡回を準備した。かくして、キリシタンのコンフラリヤと一向宗（真宗）の講組織は、酷似することとなった。本願寺が大坂石山を中心に広汎なネットワークをもち「寺内」を形成したように、一五八〇年、アレッサンドロ・ヴァリニャーノ(1539-1606)による長崎のイエズス会「教会領化」という事態は、為政者にとって、支配への挑戦の意味あいを深くした。 キリシタンは、わずか半世紀で三〇万を超える信徒を獲得するまでの広がりを見せた。その理由として、本願寺の隆盛を可能にしたと同じ時代的要請が考えられる。十五世紀頃を境として、北半球を全地球的規模でおそった気象変動に見舞われたという科学的データが存在する。ヨーロッパにおける十四世紀の夏の長雨は不作を生み、栄養不足と免疫低下をもたらした後、「黒死病」が蔓延した。このとき、コンフラテルニタスの活躍が目立った。一方、室町幕府の権威失墜とともに中央が弱体するのとは全く矛盾するように、地方の惣村的結合がすすみ、農村はむしろエネルギーを蓄えた「飛躍」の時代を迎えている。それらは天変地異や戦役によるダメージに対する共同防衛、サバイバルゲームの結果であると一部の日本史研究者らは結論づけている。その際、相互扶助の絆をより堅固なものとするために「一神教的」結合が不可欠であり、そこに、両教が民衆を惹きつけた理由が読み取れる。農民を中心とする民衆がイデオロギーによって堅固に結びつき、自主独立の領域をつくることは、統一政権樹立を目指す為政者にとって許容できない要因であり、両教の命運を左右した。 Close Communities, Christendom, and the Unified Regime in Early Modern Japan Sixteenth century Japan is the period in which the authority of great and powerful families including the Imperial family, who long reigned in the seat of authority, was eclipsed, ► and the power and authority of the Muromachi Shogunate as the central government lost its substance. In the meantime, it became a period of chaos in which the daimyo, the local clans, as well as the upper-class farmers everywhere fought anew for supremacy while conserving energy. From the standpoint of religious history, it was a period in which emerging sects, which were considered heretical by influential family temples and shrines, formed networks over wide areas. To those who harbored ambitions of national unification, the leveling of various communities of “mutual solidarity” became a matter of utmost importance. What kind of position did the newly arrived Christian communities have in this place? I focus my study on “temple precincts” as a keyword. In June 1587, an edict expelling the Christian missionaries (in a June 18 memorandum) was suddenly issued by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who had drawn near to national unification; and the Christian community, which had accomplished forty years of development, was driven into a predicament. In the law, Hideyoshi pointed out by using the keyword “temple precincts” the resemblance between Christianity and the Ikko sect (Jōdo Shinshū Honganji Buddhism), regarded both the Ikko sect (Honganji) and Christianity as mutually dangerous, and declared it to be a fundamental principle of national unification. What was it that Hideyoshi, the first statesman who pointed out the resemblance between Christians and Honganji (Jōdo Shinshū) foresaw? During the latter half of the 15th century in which the Honganji expansion began under Rennyo (1415-1499), Jōdo Shinshū built dōjō (training halls) in various places, appointed dōjō masters as organizers of the part-time (un-tonsured) monks, set up periodic kou (lecture) meetings, and solidified its religious foundation through doctrinal explanations of dialogue ritual according to sermon texts. These places were independent autonomous regions, that is, the basis of the “temple precinct”, and before long were not only exiling feudal lords “like a republic of peasants,” but also possessed independent sovereign territories. For the feudal lord with an eye on total unification, the existence of independent territories within a domain became an evil that was difficult to allow. On the other side of things, the foundation of the Christian community was recognized as the nucleus of the establishment of the “confraternitas” organizations, which had their origins in Europe and then were imported to Japan. Confraternitas were laymen’s groups that had their roots in 13th century Italy, did not cause interference with the clergy, had the designation of being an autonomous and independently administrated faith circle of believers, and after the spread of the bubonic plague in the 14th century, by means of super-diocesan mutual solidarity, preserved the church community which was on the verge of a parish system collapse as a result of the sharp drop in population. Usually, the confraternitas placed a mutually elected leader above approximately 50 members and had a law of independent executive power. The concept of confraternitas that was introduced to Japan soon became the Christian “confraria,” and became the core of the civilian religious community. Believer groups were formed in various places, with each one building “a private house with an altar”, setting up periodic meetings, and having the congregational leaders prepare the missionaries’ rounds throughout the area. In this way, the Christian confraria and the kou organizations of the Ikko sect (Shinshū) came to be closely resembled. Just as the Honganji formed “temple precincts” with extensive networks at the heart of Ōsaka Ishiyama; in 1580, under Alessandro Valignano (1539-1606), the situation of Jesuit “church territorialization” in Nagasaki made deep implications of being a challenge to the governing authority in the eyes of the ruling statesmen. Christians, in barely half a century, showed a stretch of acquiring in excess of 300,000 believers. The reason for such apparent growth can be attributed to the same request of the times that made Honganji’s prosperity possible. About the turn of the 15th century, there exists scientific data that the northern hemisphere was hit by a climate change that struck on a global scale. The long summer rain that occurred in Europe during the 14th century brought crop failure and after causing malnutrition and immunity deterioration, the “Black Death” spread. During this time, the flourishing activity of the confraternitas stood out. At the same time in Japan, the advance of local all-village style unions and farm villages, so as to completely contradict the loss of authority of the Muromachi Shogunate together with the weakening of the center, were instead entering a “leap” period of stored up energy. Some Japanese researchers have concluded that they were a result of the collective defenses and survival games that developed against the damage resulting from natural disasters and military campaigns. In those circumstances, in order to make the bonds of mutual aid stronger, a “monotheistic” union was indispensable; and there, both religions could read into reasons that attracted people. The strong connection between the populace for whom farmers play a central role by way of ideology, and the creation of territories that were autonomous and independent, was the primary prohibitive factor for statesmen who had their eyes set on the establishment of consolidated political power, and influenced the fate of both religions. Close ZHANG Xianqing 張先清 ZHANG Xianqing 移民、貿易與傳教—明末閩南天主教會的社會網路 明代閩南漳泉地區，因為負山枕海，"東連日本，西接暹、球，南通佛郎、彭亨諸國"，具有優越的海外交通便利，與十六世紀以後東來的葡萄牙、西班牙等西方勢力頻有接觸。 ► 在此背景下，天主教傳教士亦頻繁進入此區域活動，傳播教義，"皈人如市"，使該地逐漸發展成為明代華南天主教的一個中心地。 明末閩南天主教會的發展，具有與中國內地其他地區所不同的特點。其中，這一地域的獨特的海外移民、商貿網路，在推動當地天主教傳播過程中扮演了重要的角色。在西班牙人佔據菲律賓群島前後，閩南漳泉人已經成批地移居馬尼拉，"商販者至數萬人，往往久居不返，至長子孫。"由於傳教士在菲律賓推行積極傳教策略，聚居此處的漳泉人也成為主要的傳教對象，相當多的閩南人接受天主教，受洗而為教徒，在當地形成了一個閩南移民天主教徒群體。 天主教傳教士通過皈依這些閩南移民，不僅學會了閩南方言和中國文字，而且充分利用閩南商人所組成的南中國海商貿網路，積極開展向閩南地區的傳教活動。在閩南商人教徒的幫助下，天主教會頻繁派遣傳教士，乘坐閩南商船來此傳教。可以說，馬尼拉——漳泉航線，既是明末繁忙的一條商業路線，也是其時重要的一條天主教輸入路線。 正是依憑移民與商貿網路，明末閩南天主教會獲得比較迅速的發展，教徒眾多，教務亦頗發達，漳州後阪、港尾，泉州晉江、安海等地都是當時主要的天主教傳教區。更重要的是，閩南還逐漸成為西方傳教士進入華南其他地區的主要中轉站，尤其是天主教多明我會與方濟各會，都曾以閩南地區作為跳板，向中國沿海擴張傳教，由此使閩南地區成為明末與澳門相對應的另一個天主教入華門戶。 應當指出的是，閩南天主教會的獨特海外網路，在為當地天主教提供諸種傳教便利的同時，也為教會的發展提出了不少挑戰。由於明代漳泉地區出海貿易者很多，這些人長年往來閩南與東南亞地區從事經商活動，對西方勢力在東南亞地方的殖民活動耳濡目染，目睹了不少早期西方殖民者在推行殖民政策中犯下的罪行，從而對包括天主教傳教士在內的西人產生了反感，憂懼，並衍生出了不少關於天主教會的離奇傳聞，這些傳聞經過閩南商人的口耳相傳，往往成為明末閩南地區掀起排斥天主教案件的輿論工具，對閩南天主教會的發展帶來不利的影響。 總之，通過仔細爬梳中西文獻史料，我們不僅可以追蹤早期閩南人皈依天主教的歷程，檢拾曾經縱橫東南亞水域但卻幾乎被歷史湮沒的普通閩南人天主教徒的故事，並進而探索閩南天主教會的發展，而且無疑將加深對於有關移民與貿易等社會網路在促進明末華南天主教群體成長過程中所扮演的重要角色的認識。 Close Migration, Trade and Religion: the Social Networks of Catholic Communities in South Fujian in the Late Ming Period In the Ming Dynasty the South Fujian Zhang Spring area, because it "has mountains carried on the sea as its pillow," such that "the East connects to Japan, the West joins with Siam, a sphere, and to the South are the Franks (ie. Portuguese, Spanish, etc.), Pahang (Malaysia) and various countries," ► possessed the convenience of superior overseas transportation, and after the 16th century, had frequent contact with Western influences like Portugal, Spain, and other nations that came East. Under this backdrop, Catholic missionaries also frequently entered this region for activities, such as disseminating religious doctrine and "converting people as if they were at the market," causing this area to gradually develop into the center of Catholicism in South China during the Ming Dynasty. The development of Catholicism in South Fujian at the end of the Ming Dynasty possessed different characteristics from inland China and other areas. Among them, this region's unique characteristics such as its overseas immigrants and merchant network played an important role in the process of the spread of Catholicism being promoted in that area. About the time the Spanish occupied the Philippines, the people from South Fujian's Zhang Spring had already migrated to Manila in groups, with "merchants reaching tens of thousands in number, often residing for a long time not to return, and thus creating a long line of descendants." As a result of the missionaries carrying out a pro-active missionary strategy in the Philippines, the people that lived together there from the Zhang Spring area also became the primary object of missionary work, and a considerable number of people from South Fujian accepted Catholicism, receiving baptism and becoming believers, and forming in that locality a Catholic community of South Fujian immigrants. Catholic missionaries, through converting these South Fujian immigrants, not only learned the Southern Fujian dialect and Chinese writing, but moreover made full use of the South China Sea merchant network that was formed by the South Fujian traders, actively developing in a positive direction towards missionary activities in the South Fujian region. With the help of the South Fujian merchant believers, the Catholic community frequently dispatched missionaries, sailing aboard the South Fujian merchant ships that came there to do missionary work. It can be said that the Manila–Zhang Spring shipping route, as one of the busy merchant lines at the end of the Ming Dynasty, was also, in the meantime, an important Catholic import route. Precisely by relying on immigration and the merchant network, Catholicism in South Fujian at the end of the Ming dynasty obtained fairly rapid development, had multitudes of believers, an educational administration that also flourished considerably, and places such as the hillside behind Zhangzhou, Gangwei, Quanzhou Jinjiang, and An Hai all of which were, at that time, major Catholic missionary areas. More importantly, South Fujian also gradually became the primary stopover station for Western missionaries entering South China and other areas, in particular the Catholic Dominicans and Franciscans, all of whom regarded the South Fujian area as a springboard for expanding missionary work along the Chinese coast, and thus caused the South Fujian area to become another gateway for Catholicism to enter China at the end of the Ming Dynasty opposite Macau. What should be pointed out is that South Fujian Catholicism's unique characteristic of having an overseas network, while providing various kinds of conveniences for doing missionary work for local Catholicism, also proposed many challenges for the development of the church. Because there were numerous traders who went out to sea from the Zhang Spring area during the Ming Dynasty, they came to live for a long time in South Fujian and the regions of Southeast Asia, where they engaged in trade activities, and were influenced by what they saw and heard of Western power and influence in the colonization activities of places in Southeast Asia. There they witnessed criminal acts of many early Western colonizers that violated the carrying out of colonial policy, and from this emerged a repugnance and apprehension against Westerners that included the Catholic missionaries, and through which were derived many bizarre rumors about Catholicism, these rumors having been passed on through direct oral communication to the South Fujian merchants, and which frequently became a public opinion tool at the end of the Ming Dynasty in the South Fujian area that gave rise to the rejecting of the Catholic case, and brought a disadvantageous influence against the development of Catholicism in South Fujian. In brief, through putting in order and carefully combing through historical documents of China and the West, we not only can trace the process of the early South Fujian people's conversion to Catholicism, and examine their being able to pass through Southeast Asian waters unhindered, but also the stories of ordinary South Fujian Catholic Christians that were almost cast into historical oblivion. This will advance both of these topics together and explore the development of South Fujian Catholicism, and moreover will undoubtedly deepen regard related to social networks, such as immigrant and trade networks, in the understanding of the important role they played throughout the growth process of promoting Catholic communities in South China at the end of the Ming Dynasty. Close Presentations & Panel Discussion E: 莫小也 MO Xiaoye 16-17世紀澳門與日本的藝術交往 16世紀初日本繪畫風格主要受中國江南地區影響，隨著葡萄牙——澳門——長崎航線的開通，日本逐漸出現了受西洋影響的 "南蠻繪畫"。此後，日本南蠻繪畫風格傳入澳門。 ► 16-17世紀日本長崎與中國澳門藝術的交往成為兩國西洋繪畫的醞釀期，同時又相互滲透了兩國傳統繪畫的特點。 本文可以分為以下幾部分。 （一）、16世紀中期，來源於葡萄牙的聖母子像和受胎告知，由聖法蘭西斯 沙勿略帶至鹿兒島。 1583年耶穌會士喬萬尼•尼古拉 [Niccolo] 經澳門到達日本並建立聖路加學院，教授日本本土學生歐洲的雕刻和繪畫，他培養了許多優秀的基督徒學生。他的學校不僅對日本基督教藝術的形成與發展有巨大的促進作用，還成為澳門、中國內陸早期基督教作品的基本來源。 （二）、尼古拉的重大貢獻，在於利用日本耶穌會學校培養了包括倪雅穀在內的一批中國修士畫家。倪雅穀(Niva) 1579 年出生于日本一個華裔家庭。1601年他作為優秀的傳教區畫師派往利瑪竇身邊。倪雅穀先後六次經過或停留澳門，於1638年10月26日在澳門去世。他曾經為三巴寺製作壁畫，完成《升天圖》。澳門出生的游文輝(Pereira Yoeu)曾經去日本耶穌會學校學習美術，1598年經澳門返回大陸，與利瑪竇一起自南昌赴北京。尼古拉本人在基督教迫害中逃亡到澳門，客死他鄉。 （三）、在日本與澳門密切的藝術交往中，出現一些相同題材的創作。日本有一幅《聖蜜雪兒戰鬼》，大天使跨在仰臥的惡鬼身上，一隻手舉起將長矛插入惡鬼的喉嚨，另一隻手拿著一個金秤的天平。在今日的澳門天主教藝術博物館也有《聖蜜雪兒》，這幅畫的人物臉部及色彩完全借鑒西洋畫法，但是在處理服飾、背景方面又有東方線描圖特點。如今在葡萄牙可以找到同一題材用瓷器做的雕像及油畫作品，可以知道澳門與日本作品既有共同的淵源，也有各自的特徵。 Close 16-17th Century Art Contact Between Macau and Japan At the beginning of the 16th century the Japanese drawing style primarily received influence from the Chinese Chiangnan region, and along with the clearing of the Portuguese-Macau-Nagasaki shipping route, Japan gradually emerged with the influence of Western "Namban (Southern Barbarian) Drawings." ► Thereafter, the Japanese Namban drawing style spread to Macau. 16-17th century art contact between Nagasaki, Japan and Macau, China became a period in which both countries contemplated Western drawing, which simultaneously and mutually seeped into both countries' traditional drawing characteristics. This article can be divided into the following parts: (1) In the middle of the 16th century, images of the Virgin Mary & Child and the Annunciation, which originated in Portugal, were brought to Kagoshima by St. Francis Xavier. In 1583, the Jesuit Giovanni Niccolò, after spending time in Macau, arrived in Japan and established the Academy of St. Luke, where he instructed native Japanese students in European sculpture and drawing, training many outstanding Christian students. Not only did his school have a huge effect on the promotion of Japanese Christian art formation and development, but also became the basic origin of early Christian artistic work in Macau and inland China. (2) Niccolò's significant contribution lay in using Japanese Jesuit schools to raise a group of Chinese monk painters, including Ni Yagu. Ni Yagu (Niva) was born in Japan in 1579 to a family of Chinese descent. In 1601, he was appointed to Matteo Ricci's side for accomplishing outstanding missionary work as an artist. Ni Yagu successively passed through or stayed for a while in Macau six times, ultimately passing away in Macau on October 26, 1638. He once produced a mural for the Samba Temple which was completed as "Illustration of Christ's Ascension to Heaven." Wen Hui (Pereira Yoeu), who was born in Macau, was able to pass through and go to a Jesuit school to study fine arts, and in 1598, after returning to the mainland from Macau, together with Matteo Ricci, went to Beijing from Nanchang. As for Niccolò, he escaped to Macau during the Christian persecutions and there died away from home. (3) During the period of intimate art contact between Japan and Macau emerged several creations of identical subject matter. Japan has a picture of "St. Michael Battling the Devil" in which the archangel is stepping on the devil's supine body, with one hand ready to insert a lance into the devil's throat, and the other hand holding a golden scale. Today's Macau Museum of Sacred Art also has a picture "St. Michael." In this picture, the character's facial features and colors completely draw off of Western drawing technique, but the handling of the attire and background aspects also have Eastern line drawing characteristics. Now, in Portugual one can find statues and oil painting work using identical themes on chinaware, such that one can know that Macau and Japanese works already share a common origin, while also having their own respective characteristics. Close WAKAKUWA Midori 若桑みどり WAKAKUWA Midori 日本における聖母の図像の発展とその変容—中国の仏像とマリア観音の関係 1. ザビエルが1549年薩摩に上陸した時に一枚の聖母像をもってきた。ザビエルはそれが薩摩藩主の母によって崇敬され、同じものを描くよう要求された。それ以降1614年の禁令まで多数の聖母像が招来され、 ► また日本の画学校で制作された。日本人がキリストの磔像よりも聖母像をはるかに好んだことが記録によって知られ、言語の障害もある中で聖母像が日本教会の成立に大きな影響力をもったと考えられる。 2. 日本における聖母像は以下の三段階を踏んで変化した。(1) 西欧からの招来品 (2) 西欧の教師（Nicolao）または西洋画を手本として日本の画家が描いた聖母図。(3) 迫害期・潜伏期における変装した聖母像。 3. 変装した聖母像には(1) 日本製。いわゆる納戸神として紙に仏教の観音に似た女性像を描いたもの。(2) 中国商人を介して輸入された中国製の「子安観音」またはそれに類する陶製または金属製の仏像を聖母として崇敬するもの。いわゆる「マリア観音」である。 4. インドに発生した観音（Avalokitesvara）は本来男性であった。これが如何にして女性しかも母性となったか。論者はそこに中国民俗信仰における母性神崇拝と仏教との融合を見る。母性神と観音とを融合させることによって母子を守護し出産を保護する現世利益的仏教像が成立した。この中国で成立した総称「子安観音」は聖母子像を求める日本キリスト教徒が貿易商から大量に購入したとみられる。随所に残る中国製の像がそのことを証明する。 5. 論者の仮説は「子安観音」が形成される過程で、すでに中国人キリスト教徒によって聖母子として製作されていた図像があったのではないかということである。Matteo Ricciは中国人がイエスの磔刑図を好まず聖母像を好んだと報告している。記録上の証拠はないが、子安観音のうち、特に聖母図像に相似した例をとりあげることによってこの仮説を証明したい。 6. 結論として、中国、日本など東アジアの基層に残る「女性神崇拝」が、男性である観音を女性化せしめ、中国では子安観音として、日本ではマリア観音として崇敬された。先行研究ではマリア観音は迫害時代における単なる「代替物」であったと過小評価されてきたが、論者はこれを民衆の心性におけるアジアの民俗文化とキリスト教信仰のもっとも独自な融合形態とみる。 Close The Development and Transfiguration of the Iconic Image of the Virgin Mary in Japan – The Relationship Between Chinese Buddhist Images and Maria Kannon When Francis Xavier landed in Satsuma in 1549, he brought with him an image of the Virgin Mary. As for Xavier, the image of the Virgin Mary was revered by the mother of the lord of the Satsuma clan, ► and was able to request that the same thing be drawn. Thereafter, until the ban in 1614, numerous images of the Virgin Mary were given rise to and were produced by Japanese art schools. Through records it is known that images of the Virgin Mary, even more than images of Christ's crucifixion, were much preferred by the Japanese, and while there was also a language barrier, images of the Virgin Mary were considered to have a big impact on the establishment of Japanese churches. The image of the Virgin Mary in Japan changed through the course of the following three stages: (1) images of the Virgin Mary brought through the influx of goods from Western Europe, (2) pictures of the Virgin Mary drawn by Japanese artists who modeled themselves after the Western European teacher Nicolau or Western painting, and (3) images of the Virgin Mary that were disguised during the periods of persecution and of hiding underground. Disguised images of the Virgin Mary were either made in Japan, and were drawings on paper of a female image that resembled the Buddhist Kannon (the goddess of mercy), as a so-called closet god. Otherwise there were also Chinese-made "Zi'an Guanyin / Koyasu Kannon (the goddess of mercy for the safe delivery of children)" that were imported through Chinese merchants, ceramics that were similar in nature, or Buddhist images made of metal, all of which were revered as the Virgin Mary. This was the so-called "Maria Kannon." The Kannon (Avalokitesvara) that originated in India was originally a male. How was it that this Kannon became not only female, but maternal? The present writer sees in there the fusion of maternal deity worship found in Chinese folk beliefs and Buddhism. Through the fusing together of maternal deities and Kannon, the earthly beneficial Buddhist images of guarding over mother and child and protecting childbirth were established. "Koyasu Kannon," a general term established in China, could be seen being purchased in large quantities from traders by Japanese Christians seeking images of the Virgin Mary and Child. The Chinese-made images remaining all over the place prove this fact. My hypothesis on the process by which "Koyasu Kannon" was formed, is that there likely were iconic images that had been produced to be used as the Madonna and Child through Chinese Christians already in China. Matteo Ricci reports that the Chinese preferred images of the Virgin Mary without liking pictures of Jesus' crucifixion. Although there is no evidence according to records, I want to prove this theory by taking up on examples among the Koyasu Kannon that resembled icons of the Virgin Mary in particular. In conclusion, "the worship of female deities," which remains at the grassroots levels in East Asia such as China and Japan, managed to bring about the feminization of a Kannon that was male, and was revered as Zi'an Guanyin (Koyasu Kannon) in China, and as Maria Kannon in Japan. In previous research, Maria Kannon came to be evaluated too insignificantly as a mere "substitute" during the period of persecution, but this author sees this as the most original form of fusion of Asian folk customs and culture and Christian beliefs in the hearts and minds of the people. Close Saturday, December 2, 2006 Presentations & Panel Discussion F: 山本博文 YAMAMOTO Hirofumi 17世紀の江戸幕府から見たキリスト教 本報告は、17世紀初頭を対象に、キリスト教徒に対する江戸幕府の対応を中心に分析する。 16世紀後半から１７世紀初頭にかけて、日本では、イエズス会を始めとしていくつかの修道会の宣教師が来日し、さかんに布教活動を行っていた。 ► 江戸幕府の創設者徳川家康（Tokugawa Ieyasu 初代将軍）は、キリスト教の布教を禁止はしていたが、ポルトガル・スペインとの貿易の利益を得るため、布教に対しそれほど厳密な姿勢はとらなかった。 ところが、家康は、慶長19年（1614）、キリスト教の布教を厳禁し、各地の教会を破壊し、キリスト教信者の摘発を行うようになる。 さらに、家康の後継者徳川秀忠（Tokugawa Hidetada 2代将軍）は、父家康のキリスト教禁止令を引き継ぐとともにより厳格な弾圧政策をとるようになる。家康の段階では、キリスト教信者の殉教もまれなことで、あったとしてもむしろ信者が殉教を望むようなケースもよく見られたが、秀忠の段階では、より厳しき摘発するようになる。本報告では、こうした支配者の姿勢についてより厳密に検討していくつもりである。 秀忠の後継者徳川家光（Tokugawa Iemitu 3代将軍）は、いわゆる日本の「鎖国」を完成させた将軍として有名である。家光は、父秀忠が没した寛永9年（1632）の翌年から、いわゆる「鎖国令」と呼ばれる法令を発した。この法令の骨子は、日本人の海外渡航を制限すること、海外にいる日本人の帰国を禁止すること、キリスト教の信仰を許さないこと、貿易地を長崎と平戸に限定することなどであった。従来、この法令は、貿易統制とキリスト教の禁止と日本人の海外渡航の禁止という日本の江戸時代の基本的な方針を示すものと考えられてきたが、私は、貿易統制や日本人の海外渡航の制限という部分も、すべてキリスト教の禁止を実現するための措置であって、法令の基本的な理念はキリスト教の禁止である、と考えている。本報告では、この部分を、史料に基づいて論証していくつもりである。 家光によるキリスト教の禁止政策により、日本人の海外渡航は全面的に禁止され、さらにポルトガルとの貿易も断絶することになった。こうした結果をもたらした要因の一つに宗教反乱である島原の乱があるが、幕府は、ポルトガルとの貿易を断絶するにあたってオランダ人へさまざまな諮問をしている。この議論は現在、史料に残されているので、これを読み解くことによって、ポルトガルとの貿易を断絶し、日本人の海外渡航を禁止した幕府の真意が明らかにできる。 それでは、なぜ江戸幕府は、こうまでキリスト教の布教や信仰を嫌ったのであろうか。これまでの学説では、キリスト教の信仰が、為政者である徳川家や大名よりもデウス（イエス・キリスト）を上に置くことに問題があり、日本の戦国時代に見られた宗教戦争のようなものが起こることを警戒したというものが定説で、近年は、キリスト教の布教を支えたスペインやポルトガルの軍事力を警戒したものであるとの説も有力なものとして主張されている。 しかし、これらの学説は、実際に為政者の意図を示す史料に基づいて論証されたものではなく、いわば状況証拠によって推測されたものである。私は、当時の日本側史料によって、そうした政策を打ち出した為政者の考えを、各将軍の個性を考慮して分析し、江戸幕府のキリスト教の見方に迫りたいと考えている。 Close Christianity as Seen from the 17th Century Edo Shogunate This report focuses its analysis on the correspondence of the Edo Shogunate towards Christians during the early 17th century. From the latter half of the 16th century to the early 17th century in Japan, missionaries of several Catholic orders, beginning with the Jesuits, visited Japan ► and vigorously engaged in activities to propagate the faith. The founder of the Edo Shogunate, Tokugawa Ieyasu, made it forbidden to propagate Christianity, but in order to reap the benefits of trade with Portugal and Spain, he did not take such a strict stance against propagation. However, in 1614, Ieyasu reached a point where he began strictly forbidding the propagation of Christianity, destroying churches in every place, and causing the exposure of Christian believers. Furthermore, Ieyasu's successor, Tokugawa Hidetada, while taking over his father Ieyasu's prohibition edict against Christianity, came to take up an even more severe policy of oppression. During Ieyasu's reign, it is also worth noting that the martyrdom of Christian believers was a rare event, and even when it occurred, cases in which believers seemed to desire martyrdom were also often seen. But in Hidetada's period, Christians came to be exposed more severely than before. This report plans to examine more closely the attitudes of these such rulers. Hidetada's successor, Tokugawa Iemitsu, is famous for being the shogun who made Japan's so-called "national isolation" (sakoku) complete. Iemitsu, from the year following when his father Hidetada passed away in 1632, issued the decrees that came to be known as the "Sakoku edicts." The essence of these laws was to restrict Japanese from traveling overseas, prohibit the return home of Japanese who were already overseas, forbid belief in Christianity, and restrict foreign trade areas to Nagasaki and Hirado, among other things. Until recently, it was thought that these laws indicated the fundamental policy of Japan's Edo period, that is, the regulation of foreign trade, prohibition of Christianity, and prohibition of overseas voyages by Japanese. But as for me, I think that the regulation of foreign trade, as well as the part on the regulation of Japanese travel overseas, were all measures designed to implement the prohibition of Christianity, and that the basic philosophy of the laws was the prohibition of Christianity. It is the intention of this report to demonstrate this part based upon historical records. Due to the policy of prohibition against Christianity brought about by Iemitsu, overseas voyages by Japanese were forbidden in every regard and, furthermore, led to the severance of trade with Portugal. One of the factors that caused this kind of outcome was the Shimabara Rebellion, which was a religious uprising, and the shogunate who, in severing trade relations with Portugal, made various consultations the Dutch. Since this argument is left behind to historical records now, by reading and solving this, the true intentions of the shogunate severing trade with Portugal and prohibiting the overseas passage of Japanese can be made clear. So why did the Edo shogunate so despise the propagation and belief of Christianity like this? With earlier theories, the problem was that the belief of Christianity places God (Jesus Christ) above the Tokugawa family, who were the state administrators, and the daimyo, who were the local lords, while the established theory is that they were cautious about the occurrence of things like the religious wars that were seen in Japan's Warring States period (Sengoku Jidai). And in recent years, it is being contended via the important fact and the view also that they were wary of the military strength of Spain and Portugal that supported the propagation of Christianity. However, these theories in actuality are not things that were proved based upon historical records that show the intentions of the statesmen, they are, so to speak, things that were guessed through circumstantial evidence. By utilizing the historical records of that time from the Japan side, I am considering wanting to approach the Edo Shogunate's view of Christianity, taking into consideration and analyzing the thinking of the statesmen who hammered out such policies and the personality of each shogun. Close BROOK Timothy 卜正民 Timothy BROOK Europaeology: Assembling Knowledge of Europe in Late-Ming China The scholarly field of sinology emerged in the seventeenth-century Europe to order the new knowledge reaching Europeans from the other side of the globe. While China had loomed large in the European imagination ► since at least the time of Marco Polo, only with the regular contact between China and Europe beginning in that century could a discipline of knowledge come into being. A similar process of knowledge formation was occurring in China at the same time, though in a very different context. Chinese called it xixue 西學or taixi zhi xue 泰西之學 ("Western learning"). We usually think of Western learning as the study of the new scientific knowledge Europeans were bringing to China, not as the study of Europe, yet it was both. The Chinese who took up Western learning for its scientific ideas were in fact also developing a body of knowledge about the West. But that "West" is too generic, based purely on the self-identification of the Jesuit missionaries as having come from the "West." In fact, they were from Europe, and their knowledge was peculiarly European in its forms and content, which is why xixue might more accurately by translated as sinology's counterpart, as europaeology. To speak of sinology without europaeology threatens to treat China as something "local" that has to be studied and the West as something "universal" that has content without context. This paper is a first sketch of the emergence of europaeology in the first two decades of the seventeenth century, based on a reading of Matteo Ricci's Chinese writings for what they reveal about Europe, and Xu Guangqi's writings for what they show of how knowledge in China was received. Close Presentations & Panel Discussion G: 湯開建 TANG Kaijian 明中後期廣東政府對澳門日本基督徒的防範與管理 在探索新航路的進程中，葡萄牙的傳教士最先進入日本傳教。在聖方濟各沙勿略的努力下，到澳門開埠之前，日本的基督教的傳播已獲得很大的成功。緊接著方濟各會、多明我會和奧斯定會教士 ► 從馬尼拉蜂擁而至，並在日本與耶穌會產生了極大的衝突。為了制止這一現象，羅馬教宗頒佈一道聖諭，規定傳教士只有從澳門才能進入日本。這樣從明嘉靖三十三年（1554）後，澳門就成為基督教向日本傳播的最重要基地，一批一批的耶穌會士經澳門或在澳門作短暫培訓然後進入日本。由於葡日貿易航路的開通，澳門為這一航路最為重要的中轉站。日本貿易商船"大黑船"每年都載有不少日本商人與日本基督徒來到澳門。除此以外，日本基督教的發展引發了日本最高統治者的擔憂。從16世紀末開始，豐臣秀吉就開始了對日本基督徒的迫害。到德川家康時代，日本禁教運動更為廣泛和嚴厲，一批信奉者被處死，大部分教堂被拆毀，一批一批的基督徒又被驅逐到澳門，澳門成為日本基督徒重要的居住地。 嘉靖時期正是明朝倭患最嚴重的時期，明朝政府允許葡萄牙人租居澳門，本來就有以"夷"制"倭"的戰略意圖。希望借用葡萄牙人的海上力量來保衛廣東海防。大批日本基督徒進入澳門，不僅長期寄居澳門，且在澳門幫助澳葡修建城牆與炮臺。這一現象引起廣東政府的注意。兩廣總督張鳴崗言："澳夷和蓄倭，且和築城垣，抗殺官兵。"因此廣東政府在此期間，對澳門的防範、管理日漸加強，不時派出軍隊入澳質詢，干涉葡澳的城市建設，清洲山事件，黃明沙時間，郭居靜事件均是廣東政府對澳葡管理過程中爆發的衝突，最後釀發萬曆四十一年全面驅逐澳門日本人的鬥爭，並由海道副使俞安性入澳，在澳門議事亭立碑禁止日本人居住澳門，並從此成為明廣州政府管理澳門的一項最重要的制度。茲錄：《海道尊奉兩院諭蓄倭石碑》： 倭性狡鷙，向不通貢，輕入內地者必誅。朝廷法制甚嚴，乃澳夷歹蓄之為奴，養虎遺患者。將道奉受事，憑藉兩台制馭巡澳，察夷遣散倭奴，凡九十八人還國賊。爾等市夷，遂得相安樂土。此後市船不許夾帶。澳諸夷亦不許再蓄奴倭。違者，倭與夷俱登時擒，兩院定以軍法處治。王章有赫。共期祗承者。皇明萬曆四十一年，歲次癸醜七月朔。欽差整飭廣州兵巡事務、視海道兼市舶、廣州布政使司右侍郎按察司命（此碑現僅存抄本，原碑及拓本俱不知去向） 萬曆四十二年制定的《澳夷禁約五則》第一條亦是"禁蓄養倭奴"。 廣東政府的禁約並沒有完全阻止日本基督徒進入澳門。十七世紀後，由於日本禁教愈演愈烈，日本基督徒仍然不斷被流放澳門，到十七世紀中期，澳門的日本基督徒勢力極大，澳門耶穌會亦採取賄賂等手段疏通廣東政府官員，導致廣東政府對澳門管理的放鬆。因此，直至明朝的滅亡，居澳日本基督徒始終是明朝政府未曾了結的一個心頭之患。 Close The Guangdong Government's Wariness and Supervision Towards Macau's Japanese Christians in the Mid to Late Ming Period In the course of exploring new shipping routes, Portuguese missionaries first entered Japan to spread the Gospel. Under the efforts of St. Francis Xavier, until before Macau was built, the propagation of Christianity in Japan ► had already achieved great success. Following close behind, the Franciscans, Dominicans and Augustinians swarmed in from Manila, and engendered enormous conflict with the Jesuits in Japan. In order to stop this phenomenon, the Roman pope promulgated a set of holy decrees, stipulating that missionaries could only enter Japan from Macau. In this way, from after the 33rd year of the Ming Dynasty (Jiajing Period), 1554, Macau became Christianity's most important base for the propagation of Japan, with groups and groups of Jesuits doing brief training while passing through Macau or while at Macau before entering Japan. Also as a result of the opening of the Portuguese-Japan trade route, Macau became the most important stopover port for this shipping route. Every year the Japanese trade merchant vessel "the great black ship" carried many Japanese merchants and Japanese Christians to Macau. With the exception of this, the development of Christianity in Japan aroused apprehension in Japan's highest rulers. Beginning from the end of the 16th century, Toyotomi Hideyoshi began the persecution of Japanese Christians. Up until the time of Tokugawa Ieyasu, Japan's prohibition of religious activities became more widespread and more severe: one group of believers was executed, the majority of churches were demolished; moreover, groups and groups of Christians were pursued to Macau, and thus Macau became an important residential area for Japanese Christians. The Jiajing Period is exactly the time when the peril of Japanese pirates was most serious for the Ming Dynasty. The Ming government allowed the Portuguese to land lease Macau, originally with the strategic intention for using "foreigners" to control the "Japanese pirates". They hoped to borrow Portuguese seapower to come defend the Guangdong coastal defense. Large numbers of Japanese Christians entered Macau, and not only lived abroad for a long time in Macau, but also helped the Macau-Portuguese in Macau construct the city wall and fort. This phenomenon attracted the Guangdong government's attention. The governor of Guangdong and Guangxi Zhang Minggang said: "Macau foreigners harbor Japanese, and moreover build city walls, and resist government troops." Therefore, during this time, the Guangdong government, to be on guard towards Macau and manage its gradual strengthening, frequently sent out the army to enter Macau to make inquiries, and interfered with the Portuguese-Macau urban construction. Additionally, the Qingzhou Hill Incident, during the period of Huang Mingsha's (Francisco Martins) authority, and the Guo Jujing Incident all were conflicts that erupted during the Guangdong government's management process towards the Macau-Portuguese, finally leading to 41-year old Emperor Wanli's struggle to comprehensively banish the Macau Japanese. Vice-minister Yu Anxing entered Macau through the sea route, and in Macau he discussed official business and erected a stone stele forbidding the Japanese to live in Macau, henceforth becoming the most important system that the Ming Guangzhou government used to manage Macau. This was recorded as: The Stele of the Sea Route that Respectfully Obeys the Two Courts' Edict on Harbored Japanese: "The Japanese are crafty hawks; anyone who enters inland and does not pass tribute will be executed. The imperial government legal system is very strict, for indeed, Macau foreigners who wickedly harbor Japanese as slaves are allowing themselves to court disaster. The route that has received orders relies on two systems to control patrols of Macau, observing foreigners who send off and dismiss their Japanese, of which 98 in all returned home as traitors. You are all city barbarians, but can succeed in obtaining a peaceful paradise. Hereafter the city ship is not allowed to smuggle anymore. Macau's various foreigners, likewise, are not permitted to again harbor Japanese slaves. Those who disobey, both the Japanese and the foreigner, will immediately be seized, and the two courts will decide punishment according to military law. The emperor's words are glorious. He is venerated for all time. The 41st year of Emperor Ming Wanli, the 1st day of the 7th month of the year of the 10th Heavenly Stem and the 2nd of the 12 Earthly Branches. The imperial envoy will assemble the Guangzhou troops for patrol duty and inspect the sea route concurrently with the city ships. – Guangzhou Provincial adminstrative envoy right vice minister in accordance with observing the official decree." (This stone tablet exists today only as a copy of the original. The original tablet and rubbing of the original inscription have all disappeared without a trace.) The 42-year old Wanli formulated "The Five Rules of the Prohibition Agreement for Macau Foreigners," of which the first is "Forbidding the harboring or raising of Japanese slaves." The Guangdong government's prohibition agreement actually did not completely prevent Japanese Christians from entering Macau. After the 17th century, because Japan's prohibition of religion became even more widespread and more intense, Japanese Christians continued to be exiled to Macau unceasingly, and, until the middle of the 17th century, Macau's Japanese Christian influence was enormous. Furthermore, the Macau Jesuits also adopted bribery and other methods to mediate with Guangdong government officials, causing the Guangdong government to relax its management of Macau. Consequently, until the demise of the Ming Dynasty, throughout the period in which Japanese Christians resided in Macau, the worries in the mind of the Ming Dynasty government were never quite brought to an end. Close João Paulo AZEVEDO DE OLIVEIRA E COSTA João Paulo OLIVEIRA E COSTA The Japanese Students in the College of Macao (1594-1606) By the end of the 16th century, Macao was the centre of Portuguese activity in the China Sea, and it was the sole place East off Malacca where the missionaries of the Portuguese Patronage ► could organise a kind of Western daily life, despite most of the Portuguese there were actually luso-asiatic people. The founding of the College of Macao by Alessandro Valignano was a decision concerning all his missionary strategy for East Asia, but it was also a direct answer to the evolution of the Japanese mission from his first visit (1579-1582) to the second (1590-1592). The growing of baptisms and the admission of a large number of Japanese as Jesuits, as well as the beginning of the hostility of Japanese central power against Christianity, stressed the urgent need of an institution where some of those Japanese clerics could make their preparation for becoming priests. Due to the political situation in Japan and to the controversies about the admission of native clergy, Valignano realised that such an institution had to be created out of the archipelago. During his second stay in Japan, the visitor admitted the possibility of sending 10 Japanese brothers to Rome, in order to finish there their training. However he realised soon that such idea was not very practical and Macao became the natural solution, which could be used also for the training of the future Chinese missionaries. Such a college could be also the ideal place for the last studies of the European Jesuits who would be later sent to China or to Japan. Therefore, Macao emerged as the appropriated place for the training of all the Jesuits who would be involved in the conversion of East Asia – an Asiatic city where East Asian and European civilisations were interacting. During about a decade, the College of Macao was the main training centre for the Jesuits who would work in Japan, and a few Japanese brothers made there a significant part of their studies. However, after Valignano's death the Japanese disappear from the College lists. Francesco Pasio, the vice-provincial of Japan was an opponent of Valignano's policy concerning the College, and changed the system of preparation of Japanese brothers, as soon as he received news about Valignano's death. In the following years, bishop Cerqueira ordained several Japanese priests, but most of them (including all the diocesan priests) had made their preparation in Japan. Later, the retreat of most of the Jesuits to Macao and Manila, in 1614, was not profited to start again the preparation of Japanese Jesuits in Macao. In my paper I shall present an analysis of the Japanese who studied in Macao from 1594 to 1606 trying to integrate that specific group of Jesuits in Valignano's apostolic policy. Close |
Updated Date:2007-06-20 |